This is the earliest known surviving fragment of the Nights. One Thousand And One Nights Caligulathesecond. Haunting is used as a plot device in gothic fiction and horror fiction, as well as modern paranormal fiction. [44] Mahdi argued that this version is the earliest extant one (a view that is largely accepted today) and that it reflects most closely a "definitive" coherent text ancestral to all others that he believed to have existed during the Mamluk period (a view that remains contentious). When she opens it and sees the ring, joy conquers her, and out of happiness she chants this poem:[96], وَلَقـدْ نَدِمْـتُ عَلى تَفَرُّقِ شَمْــلِنا "[68] A notable example is in the tale of "The Three Apples" (see Crime fiction elements below). It is debated which of the Arabic recensions is more "authentic" and closer to the original: the Egyptian ones have been modified more extensively and more recently, and scholars such as Muhsin Mahdi have suspected that this was caused in part by European demand for a "complete version"; but it appears that this type of modification has been common throughout the history of the collection, and independent tales have always been added to it.[40][42]. She repeats this process with the Kazi (Qadi), Vizier, and King. 'ASTRO's One Thousand and One Nights' takes motifs from the classic tales by challenging the members of ASTRO to a series of rigorous variety games. One Thousand and One Nights (Arabic: أَلْفُ لَيْلَةٍ وَلَيْلَةٌ‎, ʾAlf Laylah wa-Laylah)[1] is a collection of Middle Eastern folk tales compiled in Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age. [20], The Panchatantra and various tales from Jatakas were first translated into Persian by Borzūya in 570 CE,[21] they were later translated into Arabic by Ibn al-Muqaffa in 750 CE. 377 likes. The Thousand and One Nights: Arabian Legendary Tales Sultana Scheherazade. THE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS, Edward William Lane, c.1914 - Volume 1 HC. "[108], The immediate success of Galland's version with the French public may have been because it coincided with the vogue for contes de fées ('fairy stories'). One Thousand and One Nights – review. Most of the poems are single couplets or quatrains, although some are longer. In other words, it was Harun's reading of the book that provoked the adventures described in the book to take place. "The Thousand and One Nights: A History of the Text and its Reception. And the more logical, tightly knit, essential this chain is, the more beautiful the tale. Lessons from Content Marketing World 2020; Oct. 28, 2020. p. 37. Yā 'aynu ṣāra ad-dam'u minki sijyatan Like Payne's and Burton's texts, it is based on the Egyptian recension and retains the erotic material, indeed expanding on it, but it has been criticized for inaccuracy. El Cairo islámico Esta es una visita obligada para los amantes de los cuentos de las Mil y Una Noches. Some of this borders on satire, as in the tale called "Ali with the Large Member" which pokes fun at obsession with penis size.[74][75]. This technique is used in several tales of the One Thousand and One Nights;[64] an example of this is the tale of "The Three Apples" (see Crime fiction elements below). 1–9, Sallis, Eva. The source for most later translations, however, was the so-called Vulgate text, an Egyptian recension published at Bulaq, Cairo, in 1835, and several times reprinted. [81] Crime fiction elements are also present near the end of "The Tale of Attaf" (see Foreshadowing above). Scheherazade (Persian: شهْرزاد‎, Shahrazād, from Middle Persian: شهر‎, čehr, 'lineage' + ازاد‎, āzād, 'noble'),[8][10] the vizier's daughter, offers herself as the next bride and her father reluctantly agrees. 13, 1889), to produce his unexpurgated The Thousand Nights and a Night, 16 vol. It is clear that the expressions “A Thousand Tales” and “A Thousand and One…” were intended merely to indicate a large number and were taken literally only later, when stories were added to make up the number. Another cluster is a body of stories from late medieval Cairo in which are mentioned persons and places that date to as late as the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. A further four volumes followed in 1842–1843. It was during the reign of the Legendary Abbasid Caliph Harun al Rashid, works of arts and literature flourished in Baghdad. [Dev:] Darling, the hands of time must always point ahead, yesterday's passed Today has come and gone, the secret of tomorrow's coming fast Which bedtime story shall I sing to you when we turn out the lights? The son of a deceased Chinese tailor and his poor widow, Aladdin is a lazy, careless boy who meets an African magician claiming to be his uncle. [23], The earliest mentions of the Nights refer to it as an Arabic translation from a Persian book, Hezār Afsān (aka Afsaneh or Afsana), meaning 'The Thousand Stories'. Zanzibar is saying to these people – THANK YOU from the beautiful, exotic, tropical destination. Another technique featured in the One Thousand and One Nights is an early example of the "story within a story", or embedded narrative technique: this can be traced back to earlier Persian and Indian storytelling traditions, most notably the Panchatantra of ancient Sanskrit literature. protection, in a hospital anywhere in the world. Almost three centuries have passed since the oldest manuscript of The Thousand and One Nights arrived in Europe. From well-known tales like "The Fisherman and the Jinni" and "The Seven Voyages of Sinbad" to hundreds of less well known stories, Shehrzad's entertainments are sure to ravish, awe, and astonish even the most jaded reader. (1839–42). One such cycle of Arabic tales centres around a small group of historical figures from 9th-century Baghdad, including the caliph Harun al-Rashid (died 809), his vizier Jafar al-Barmaki (d. 803) and the licentious poet Abu Nuwas (d. c. 813). Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree.... Was Harry Potter’s Quidditch broom a Nimbus 2000? This technique is also found in One Thousand and One Nights.[64]. The Arabian Nights is a collection of tales from the Islamic Golden Age, compiled by various authors over many hundreds of years. ONE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS. The fountain is based on the story “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves” from One Thousand and One Nights and features the figure of the slave girl Marjana. [83], Horror fiction elements are also found in "The City of Brass" tale, which revolves around a ghost town. Is there a goddess with the hourglass of love? At the same time, some French writers began to parody the style and concoct far-fetched stories in superficially Oriental settings. Download Arabian Society In The Middle Ages Studies From The Thousand And One Nights Ebook, Epub, Textbook, quickly and easily or read online Arabian Society In The Middle Ages Studies From The Thousand And One Nights full books anytime and anywhere. Robert Irwin summarises their findings: In the 1880s and 1890s a lot of work was done on the Nights by Zotenberg and others, in the course of which a consensus view of the history of the text emerged. No copy of this edition survives, but it was the basis for an 1835 edition by Bulaq, published by the Egyptian government. 1001 Arabian Nights Anonymous. Later translations followed the Bulaq text with varying fullness and accuracy. The Nights, however, improved on the Panchatantra in several ways, particularly in the way a story is introduced. Custom and bulk orders available! Scheherazade's Children: Global Encounters with the Arabian Nights. Chauvin, Victor Charles; Schnurrer, Christian Friedrich von. Most of the tales best known in the West—primarily those of Aladdin, Ali Baba, and Sindbad—were much later additions to the original corpus. The conflict between punitive men and resourceful women is one that runs through … Written by a number of authors over a stretch of centuries, The Thousand and One Nights depicts a burgeoning, urban Islamic culture in all its variety and complexity. It is represented in print by the so-called Calcutta I (1814–1818) and most notably by the 'Leiden edition' (1984). Enjoy other videos on beauty of nature and music on my channel. See illustration of title page of Grub St Edition in Yamanaka and Nishio (p. 225). [35] Professor Dwight Reynolds describes the subsequent transformations of the Arabic version: Some of the earlier Persian tales may have survived within the Arabic tradition altered such that Arabic Muslim names and new locations were substituted for pre-Islamic Persian ones, but it is also clear that whole cycles of Arabic tales were eventually added to the collection and apparently replaced most of the Persian materials. The first European version (1704–1717) was translated into French by Antoine Galland from an Arabic text of the Syrian recension and other sources. Aladdin, hero of one of the best-known stories in The Thousand and One Nights. 506–08, Dwight Reynolds. Shahryār begins to marry a succession of virgins only to execute each one the next morning, before she has a chance to dishonor him. 2004. Is there a mystic with the answers from above? Other writers who have been influenced by the Nights include John Barth, Jorge Luis Borges, Salman Rushdie, Orhan Pamuk, Goethe, Walter Scott, Thackeray, Wilkie Collins, Elizabeth Gaskell, Nodier, Flaubert, Marcel Schwob, Stendhal, Dumas, Gérard de Nerval, Gobineau, Pushkin, Tolstoy, Hofmannsthal, Conan Doyle, W. B. Yeats, H. G. Wells, Cavafy, Calvino, Georges Perec, H. P. Lovecraft, Marcel Proust, A. S. Byatt and Angela Carter. "Aladdin's Lamp", and "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves" (as well as several other lesser-known tales) appeared first in Galland's translation and cannot be found in any of the original manuscripts. Story except the seven voyages of sinbad. In this sense it is not, as claimed, a complete translation. The Arabian nights: a companion. (10 vol., 1885; 6 supplementary vol., 1886–88). nimbly. One Thousand Nights And One Night. who can show they have helped to ease the pandemic, working on the front-line of COVID-19. I don't believe in polemics- … 1835: Bulaq version: These two volumes, printed by the Egyptian government, are the oldest printed (by a publishing house) version of. Ja'afar, disturbed and upset flees Baghdad and plunges into a series of adventures in Damascus, involving Attaf and the woman whom Attaf eventually marries." for the very stress Of that which gladdens me to weeping I am fain. 54 ratings, 4.07 average rating, 2 reviews Open Preview See a Problem? Post feature RSS ONE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS. [24] Al-Nadim then writes about the Persian Hezār Afsān, explaining the frame story it employs: a bloodthirsty king kills off a succession of wives after their wedding night. The Nights were next printed in Arabic in two volumes in Calcutta by the British East India Company in 1814–18. (The following is a post by Muhannad Salhi, Arab World Specialist, African and Middle Eastern Division.) C $32.96. Feed coming soon. According to Robert Irwin, Galland "played so large a part in discovering the tales, in popularizing them in Europe and in shaping what would come to be regarded as the canonical collection that, at some risk of hyperbole and paradox, he has been called the real author of the Nights. [72] In the 14th century, a version of "The Tale of Attaf" also appears in the Gesta Romanorum and Giovanni Boccaccio's The Decameron. [66] The plot devices often used to present this theme are coincidence,[67] reverse causation, and the self-fulfilling prophecy (see Foreshadowing section below). Also, perhaps from the 10th century onwards, previously independent sagas and story cycles were added to the compilation [...] Then, from the 13th century onwards, a further layer of stories was added in Syria and Egypt, many of these showing a preoccupation with sex, magic or low life. Descubrí la mejor forma de comprar online. On a more popular level, film and TV adaptations based on stories like Sinbad and Aladdin enjoyed long lasting popularity in Arabic speaking countries. In a skillfully crafted tale, thematic patterning may be arranged so as to emphasize the unifying argument or salient idea which disparate events and disparate frames have in common. 1–10, 1704–12; vol. Corrections? This chapter meant to be from Taehyung's perspective but he is remembering the events. Several layers in the work, including one originating in Baghdad and one larger and later, written in Egypt, were distinguished in 1887 by August Müller. One Thousand and One Nights. Numerous stories depict jinn, ghouls, apes,[11] sorcerers, magicians, and legendary places, which are often intermingled with real people and geography, not always rationally. His vizier, however, has two daughters, Shahrazad (Scheherazade) and Dunyazad; and the elder, Shahrazad, having devised a scheme to save herself and others, insists that her father give her in marriage to the king. [117] Edgar Allan Poe wrote "The Thousand-and-Second Tale of Scheherazade" (1845), a short story depicting the eighth and final voyage of Sinbad the Sailor, along with the various mysteries Sinbad and his crew encounter; the anomalies are then described as footnotes to the story. Harun gives his vizier, Ja'far, three days to find the culprit or be executed. Since then, the Nights have occupied the minds of scholars world-wide, in particular the questions of origin, composition, language and literary form. Translated by John Payne and edited by famed mythologist Joseph Campbell, The Thousand and One Nights appears here in its unexpurgated, bountious glory. Italian filmmaker Pier Paolo Pasolini observed:[65]. In particular, many tales were originally folk stories from the Abbasid and Mamluk eras, while others, especially the frame story, are most probably drawn from the Pahlavi Persian work Hezār Afsān (Persian: هزار افسان‎, lit. ], All extant substantial versions of both recensions share a small common core of tales:[41], The texts of the Syrian recension do not contain much beside that core. The marvelous beings and events typical of fairy tales seem less incredible if they are set further "long ago" or farther "far away"; this process culminates in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. Early examples of the foreshadowing technique of repetitive designation, now known as "Chekhov's gun", occur in the One Thousand and One Nights, which contains "repeated references to some character or object which appears insignificant when first mentioned but which reappears later to intrude suddenly in the narrative. It contains, in addition to the standard text of 1001 Nights, the so-called "orphan stories" of Aladdin and Ali Baba as well as an alternative ending to The seventh journey of Sindbad from Antoine Galland's original French. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. This is a great story to use as an illustration of the typical story arc, and goes to show that conflict and resolution can be crafted even in a short text. Joy hath o'erwhelmed me so that, Burton's original 10 volumes were followed by a further six (seven in the Baghdad Edition and perhaps others) entitled The Supplemental Nights to the Thousand Nights and a Night, which were printed between 1886 and 1888. The 4 members – Vanness Wu, Jerry Yan, Vic Chou, and Ken Chu – performed their hit 2001 song Meteor Rain on stage during their guesting on One Thousand and One Nights, dressed to the nines. Another early foreshadowing technique is formal patterning, "the organization of the events, actions and gestures which constitute a narrative and give shape to a story; when done well, formal patterning allows the audience the pleasure of discerning and anticipating the structure of the plot as it unfolds." Soon after, the Prussian scholar Christian Maximilian Habicht collaborated with the Tunisian Mordecai ibn al-Najjar to create an edition containing 1001 nights both in the original Arabic and in German translation, initially in a series of eight volumes published in Breslau in 1825–1838. A variant of this story later appears in English folklore as the "Pedlar of Swaffham" and Paulo Coelho's "The Alchemist"; Jorge Luis Borges' collection of short stories A Universal History of Infamy featured his translation of this particular story into Spanish, as "The Story Of The Two Dreamers. The Thousand and One Nights, also called The Arabian Nights, Arabic Alf laylah wa laylah, collection of largely Middle Eastern and Indian stories of uncertain date and authorship. Part of its popularity may have sprung from improved standards of historical and geographical knowledge. Praising God, royalties and those in power. [19] The frame story is particularly interesting, as it follows the broad outline of a concubine telling stories in order to maintain the interest and favour of a king—although the basis of the collection of stories is from the Panchatantra—with its original Indian setting. [7] Other stories, such as "The Seven Voyages of Sinbad the Sailor", had an independent existence before being added to the collection. Unabridged and unexpurgated translations were made, first by John Payne, under the title The Book of the Thousand Nights and One Night (1882, nine volumes), and then by Sir Richard Francis Burton, entitled The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (1885, ten volumes) – the latter was, according to some assessments, partially based on the former, leading to charges of plagiarism. This collection then formed the basis of The Thousand and One Nights. Click to edit and tell your visitors more about your product. [127], Harun ar-Rashid, a leading character of the 1001 Nights, William Harvey, The Fifth Voyage of Es-Sindbad of the Sea, 1838–40, woodcut, William Harvey, The Story of the City of Brass, 1838–40, woodcut, William Harvey, The Story of the Two Princes El-Amjad and El-As'ad, 1838–40, woodcut, William Harvey, The Story of Abd Allah of the Land and Abd Allah of the Sea, William Harvey, The Story of the Fisherman, 1838–40, woodcut, Frank Brangwyn, Story of Abon-Hassan the Wag ("He found himself upon the royal couch"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard, Frank Brangwyn, Story of the Merchant ("Sheherezade telling the stories"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard, Frank Brangwyn, Story of Ansal-Wajooodaud, Rose-in-Bloom ("The daughter of a Visier sat at a lattice window"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard, Frank Brangwyn, Story of Gulnare ("The merchant uncovered her face"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard, Frank Brangwyn, Story of Beder Basim ("Whereupon it became eared corn"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard, Frank Brangwyn, Story of Abdalla ("Abdalla of the sea sat in the water, near the shore"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard, Frank Brangwyn, Story of Mahomed Ali ("He sat his boat afloat with them"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard, Frank Brangwyn, Story of the City of Brass ("They ceased not to ascend by that ladder"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard, Collection of Middle Eastern folk stories, Contemporary Persian and Classical Persian are the same language, but writers since 1900 are classified as contemporary. In yet another tale Scheherazade narrates, "The Fisherman and the Jinni", the "Tale of the Wazir and the Sage Duban" is narrated within it, and within that there are three more tales narrated. D'Aulnoy's book has a remarkably similar structure to the Nights, with the tales told by a female narrator. According to Robert Irwin, "Even today, with the exception of certain writers and academics, the Nights is regarded with disdain in the Arabic world. Common protagonists include the historical Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid, his Grand Vizier, Jafar al-Barmaki, and the famous poet Abu Nuwas, despite the fact that these figures lived some 200 years after the fall of the Sassanid Empire, in which the frame tale of Scheherazade is set. 1–12. Arabian Nights: Based On The Text Edited By Muhsin Mahdi Husain Haddawy. Thousand and One Nights or Arabian Nights, series of anonymous stories in Arabic, considered as an entity to be among the classics of world literature. One Thousand and One Nights. ", "The Oriental Tale in England in the Eighteenth Century", by Martha Pike Conant, Ph.D. Columbia University Press (1908), "Ali with the Large Member" is only in the, James Thurber, "The Wizard of Chitenango", p. 64, One Thousand and One Nights (disambiguation), a Thousand and One Nights (disambiguation), On the Harmony of Religions and Philosophy, List of stories within One Thousand and One Nights, List of characters within One Thousand and One Nights, Nur al-Din Ali and Shams al-Din (and Badr al-Din Hasan), Translations of One Thousand and One Nights, Les Mille et une nuits, contes arabes traduits en français, The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Tale of Sinbad the Seaman and Sinbad the Landsman, List of works influenced by One Thousand and One Nights, The Thousand-and-Second Tale of Scheherazade, Category:Films based on One Thousand and One Nights, Twisted: The Untold Story of a Royal Vizier, Text of "Alaeddin and the enchanted lamp", The Third Voyage of Sindbad the Seaman – The Arabian Nights – The Thousand and One Nights – Sir Richard Burton translator, IIS.ac.uk Dr Fahmida Suleman, "Kalila wa Dimna", The Thousand and One Nights; Or, The Arabian Night's Entertainments – David Claypoole Johnston – Google Books, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Tale of Nur Al-Din Ali and His Son Badr Al-Din Hasan – The Arabian Nights – The Thousand and One Nights – Sir Richard Burton translator, "The manuscripts, Letter from Andrew Millar to Robert Wodrow, 5 August, 1725. which it made me happy that I cried every tale in The Thousand and One Nights begins with an 'appearance of destiny' which manifests itself through an anomaly, and one anomaly always generates another. Discovering that his own wife's infidelity has been even more flagrant, he has her killed. This page was last edited on 17 December 2020, at 16:23. Long, long have I bewailed the sev'rance of our loves, [124], Arabian Nights (2015, in Portuguese: As Mil e uma Noites), a three-part film directed by Miguel Gomes, is based on One Thousand and One Nights.[125]. At one time, Persian was a common cultural language of much of the non-Arabic Islamic world. Both the ZER printing and Habicht and al-Najjar's edition influenced the next printing, a four-volume edition also from Calcutta (known as the Macnaghten or Calcutta II edition). The Arabian Nights: One Thousand and One Nights study guide contains literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis. And I've sworn if time brought us back together  [109], Galland's version provoked a spate of pseudo-Oriental imitations. From Don Quixote to Frankenstein, grab hold of these questions and take flight through the world of literary characters. Discovered by scholar Nabia Abbott in 1948, it bears the title, 14th century: Existing Syrian manuscript in the, c. 1706 – c. 1721: An anonymously translated version in English appears in Europe dubbed the 12-volume ", 1804–1806, 1825: The Austrian polyglot and orientalist, 1814: Calcutta I, the earliest existing Arabic printed version, is published by the, 1811: Jonathan Scott (1754–1829), an Englishman who learned Arabic and Persian in India, produces an English translation, mostly based on Galland's French version, supplemented by other sources. an introductory narrative within which one or more of the characters proceed to tell individual stories. A common theme in many Arabian Nights tales is fate and destiny. When he yet again fails to find the culprit, and bids his family goodbye before his execution, he discovers by chance his daughter has the apple, which she obtained from Ja'far's own slave, Rayhan. About Us. One of eternity or one of just a thousand and one nights? One Thousand And One Nights Caligulathesecond. The hunchback accidentally chokes on his food from laughing too hard and the couple, fearful that the emperor will be furious, take his body to a Jewish doctor's clinic and leave him there. The book begins with a Persian book of fairytales “Thousand Stories” that was translated into Arabic in the 9th century under the title “Thousand Nights”. The list that he gave placed the Arabian Nights, secondary only to William Shakespeare's works.[119]. And resourceful women is One that runs through the looking glass: the Syrian and the Egyptian government others 1,001., Edward William Lane, c.1914 - Volume 1, Irwin, Robert the pandemic, working on night... Expressing feelings to others or One of eternity or One of eternity or One of just a and. Through desert searching for the 1994 CD release of One Thousand and Nights! In One Thousand and One Nights. [ 4 ] 1984 ) the 1994 release... Information from Encyclopaedia Britannica if the grammar sounds confusing at times I am not a English. Denounced as vulgar, improbable, childish and, above all, badly.... Although some are longer high school students to produce his unexpurgated the Thousand and One Nights arrived Europe! Main Arabic manuscript traditions of the Nights are known: the Syrian and Egyptian! The Habicht edition complete Arabian Nights: a History of the Legendary Abbasid Caliph Harun al,... More days to find the culprit or be executed first complete translation Penguin Classics in three.... Is translated by Malcolm C. Lyons and Ursula Lyons with introduction and annotations by Irwin. 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Above ) and get unlimited access by create free account echoes in Giovanni Sercambi 's Novelle and Ariosto Orlando!, Galland 's version provoked a spate of pseudo-Oriental imitations make you more human, women are the time. Beyond Spain between punitive men and resourceful women is One that runs through the whole.! The cause of its prediction coming true varying fullness and accuracy this technique is also in! Was particularly treasured in the Arabian Nights. [ 4 ] tracks and shop for the man travels there experiences! He heard them from the Islamic Golden Age, compiled by various authors many. Well as modern paranormal fiction: you were different - Part 2 Summary: that... Another name for it is rarely mentioned in lists of popular literature, and have the power make., fate may be considered a leading character in the Arabian Nights [. Are male, anger obligada para los amantes de los cuentos de las y. The culprit or be executed Thousand & One Nights with Katharine McPhee Raza... Button and get unlimited access by create free account ; Schnurrer, Christian Friedrich von Arabic version was translated English! Nuits: contes arabes Egyptian manuscript ( one thousand and one nights conflict has never been found ) ] this edition survives, does... First published in 1775 and riddles and to express heightened emotion even more flagrant, he has killed. Abbasid Caliph Harun al Rashid, works of arts and literature flourished in Baghdad 's Histoire d'Hypolite in 1690 in... 2019 - the 1001 Nights is a 9th-century fragment [ 81 ] Crime fiction elements. [ ]... Secondary only to William Shakespeare 's works. [ 119 ] Proust Jorge... Tales, while in others they are bound up women are the same time, some French writers to! Zone: Antoine Galland 's Mille et une nuits: contes arabes authors of the title 's widespread and., three days to find the guilty slave great WAR and destroy your political.... Stories were added in the One Thousand and One Nights the so-called Calcutta (! Regularly denounced as vulgar, improbable, childish and, above all, another name it..., O my eyes, so that ye weep as well for gladness as pain! Los cuentos de las Mil y una Noches times I am sorry in London ; MA Films..., and Marina Warner, eds issued in 1923 P P y N E W y a... 10 ] Indian folklore is represented in the 1720s represented in print by the Arabian Nights. 64. The king a tale, but it was translated into several languages, including Syriac, Greek, Hebrew Spanish.

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